I-Modern Homo sapiens ibambe iqhaza enanini elikhulu lokuguqulwa kwe-ecosystem, kodwa kunzima ukuthola umsuka noma imiphumela yokuqala yalokhu kuziphatha.Isayensi yemivubukulo, i-geochronology, geomorphology, kanye nedatha ye-paleoenvironmental evela enyakatho yeMalawi ibhala ubudlelwano obushintshayo phakathi kokuba khona kwamafolishi, inhlangano ye-ecosystem, kanye nokwakheka kwabalandeli be-alluvial e-Late Pleistocene.Cishe ngemva kwekhulu lama-20, kwasungulwa uhlelo oluminyene lwezinto zobuciko ze-Mesolithic kanye nabalandeli be-alluvial.Eminyakeni engu-92,000 edlule, endaweni ye-paleo-ecological, yayingekho i-analogue kurekhodi langaphambili leminyaka engu-500,000.Imininingwane yemivubukulo kanye nokuhlaziywa kwezixhumanisi okuyinhloko kubonisa ukuthi imililo yakudala eyadalwa abantu yaxegisa imikhawulo yenkathi ethile yokushisa, ithinte ukwakheka kwezitshalo nokuguguleka.Lokhu, kuhlanganiswe nezinguquko zezulu eziqhutshwa yisimo sezulu, kugcine kuholele ekushintsheni kwezemvelo endaweni yokwenziwa yangaphambi kwezolimo.
Abantu banamuhla bangabagqugquzeli abanamandla bokuguqulwa kwe-ecosystem.Izinkulungwane zeminyaka, baye bashintsha indawo ezungezile kakhulu futhi ngamabomu, kwaqubula inkulumo-mpikiswano mayelana nokuthi kwavela nini futhi kanjani i-ecosystem yokuqala ebuswa abantu (1).Ubufakazi obuningi bemivubukulo kanye ne-ethnographic bubonisa ukuthi kunenani elikhulu lokusebenzelana okuphindaphindayo phakathi kwamafoji nendawo ezungezile, okubonisa ukuthi lezi zindlela zokuziphatha ziyisisekelo sokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwezinhlobo zethu (2-4).Ifosili kanye nedatha yofuzo ikhombisa ukuthi amaHomo sapiens ayekhona e-Afrika cishe eminyakeni eyi-315,000 edlule (ka).Idatha yemivubukulo ibonisa ukuthi inkimbinkimbi yokuziphatha okwenzeka kulo lonke izwekazi ikhule kakhulu esikhathini esidlule cishe ngama-span angama-300 kuya kwangu-200.Ukuphela kwePleistocene (Chibanian) (5).Selokhu savela njengezinto eziphilayo, abantu sebeqale ukuthembela ekusungulweni okusha kwezobuchwepheshe, ezinhlelweni zonyaka, kanye nokubambisana okuyinkimbinkimbi komphakathi ukuze baphumelele.Lezi zimfanelo zisenza sikwazi ukusebenzisa ngokunenzuzo indawo nemithombo eyayingahlali muntu ngaphambili noma eyeqisayo, ngakho namuhla abantu bawukuphela kwezilwane eziphila emhlabeni wonke (6).Umlilo waba nendima ebalulekile kulolu shintsho (7).
Amamodeli ebhayoloji akhombisa ukuthi ukuguquguquka kokudla okuphekiwe kungalandelelwa emuva okungenani eminyakeni eyizigidi ezi-2 edlule, kodwa kuze kube sekupheleni kwe-Middle Pleistocene lapho kwavela khona ubufakazi obuvamile bemivubukulo bokulawula umlilo (8).Umnyombo wolwandle onamarekhodi othuli avela endaweni enkulu yezwekazi lase-Afrika ukhombisa ukuthi ezigidini zeminyaka edlule, inani eliphakeme le-carbon elemental livele ngemuva kwama-ka angama-400, ikakhulukazi ngesikhathi soguquko lusuka ku-interglacial luye enkathini yeqhwa, kodwa futhi lwenzeka iHolocene (9).Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi ngaphambi kuka-400 ka, imililo e-sub-Saharan Africa yayingavamile, futhi iminikelo yabantu yayibalulekile eHolocene (9).Umlilo uyithuluzi elisetshenziswa abelusi kuyo yonke iHolocene ukutshala nokunakekela izindawo ezinotshani (10).Kodwa-ke, ukuthola isizinda nomthelela wemvelo wokusetshenziswa komlilo ngabazingeli abaqoqi e-Pleistocene yasekuqaleni kuyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu (11).
Umlilo ubizwa ngokuthi ithuluzi lobunjiniyela lokukhohlisa kwensiza kukho kokubili i-ethnography kanye ne-archaeology, okuhlanganisa ukuthuthukisa imbuyiselo yokuziphilisa noma ukulungisa izinto zokusetshenziswa.Le misebenzi ivamise ukuhlobana nokuhlelwa komphakathi futhi idinga ulwazi oluningi lwemvelo (2, 12, 13).Imililo yezinga lendawo yenza abazingeli baxoshe inyamazane, balawule izinambuzane, futhi bakhulise umkhiqizo wendawo (2).Umlilo osendaweni ukhuthaza ukupheka, ukufudumeza, ukuvikela izilwane ezidla ezinye, kanye nokubumbana komphakathi (14).Kodwa-ke, izinga lapho imililo yomzingeli engakwazi ukulungisa kabusha izingxenye zezwe, njengesakhiwo somphakathi wezinto eziphilayo nendawo yazo ezungezile kanye nesimo sendawo, liyindida kakhulu (15, 16).
Ngaphandle kwedatha ye-archaeological kanye ne-geomorphological ephelelwe yisikhathi kanye namarekhodi emvelo aqhubekayo avela ezindaweni eziningi, ukuqonda ukuthuthukiswa kwezinguquko zemvelo ezibangelwa umuntu kuyinkinga.Amarekhodi esikhathi eside ediphozi echibini avela eGreat Rift Valley eNingizimu ne-Afrika, kuhlanganiswe namarekhodi asendulo emivubukulo endaweni, akwenza kube indawo yokuphenya umthelela wemvelo obangelwa i-Pleistocene.Lapha, sibika nge-archeology kanye ne-geomorphology yendawo ebanzi ye-Stone Age eningizimu-maphakathi ne-Afrika.Sabe sesiyixhumanisa nedatha ye-paleoenvironmental ehlanganisa >600 ka ukuze sinqume ubufakazi bokuqala obuhlangene bokuziphatha komuntu kanye noguquko lwe-ecosystem kumongo wemililo eyenziwa abantu.
Sinikeze umkhawulo weminyaka owawungakaze ubikwe ngaphambili wombhede waseChitimwe Esifundeni SaseKaronga, esisemaphethelweni asenyakatho yengxenye esenyakatho yeMalawi eningizimu ye-Afrika Rift Valley (Umfanekiso 1) (17).Le mibhede yakhiwe abalandeli benhlabathi ebomvu be-alluvial kanye ne-sediments yomfula, ehlanganisa cishe amakhilomitha-skwele angu-83, equkethe izigidi zemikhiqizo yamatshe, kodwa azikho izinsalela eziphilayo ezilondoloziwe, njengamathambo (Umbhalo Ongeziwe) (18).Idatha yethu yokukhanya okujabulisayo (OSL) evela kurekhodi lomhlaba (Umfanekiso 2 kanye namathebula S1 ukuya ku-S3) yachibiyela iminyaka yombhede waseChitimwe yaba iLate Pleistocene, futhi ubudala obudala kakhulu bokusebenzisa abalandeli be-alluvial kanye nokungcwatshwa kwamatshe cishe ngama-92 ka ( 18, 19).Isendlalelo se-alluvial kanye nomfula iChitimwe simboza amachibi nemifula yongqimba lwe-Pliocene-Pleistocene Chiwondo ukusuka ekungavumelani kwe-engeli ephansi (17).Lawa ma-diphozithi atholakala ku-fault wedge emaphethelweni echibi.Ukucushwa kwazo kubonisa ukusebenzisana phakathi kokuguquguquka kwezinga lechibi kanye namaphutha asebenzayo adlulela ku-Pliocene (17).Nakuba isenzo se-tectonic kungenzeka sithinte i-topography yesifunda kanye nomthambeka we-piedmont isikhathi eside, umsebenzi wephutha kule ndawo kungenzeka wehlile kusukela ku-Middle Pleistocene (20).Ngemva ~ 800 ka futhi kuze kube ngemva kuka-100 ka, i-hydrology yeLake Malawi iqhutshwa ikakhulukazi isimo sezulu (21).Ngakho-ke, akukho kulokhu okuwukuphela kwencazelo yokwakhiwa kwabalandeli be-alluvial ku-Late Pleistocene (22).
(A) Indawo yesiteshi sase-Afrika ngokuhlobene nemvula yesimanje (inkanyezi);okuluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka kuba manzi futhi okubomvu komile (73);ibhokisi elingakwesokunxele libonisa iLake Malawi nezindawo ezizungezile i-MAL05-2A kanye ne-MAL05-1B Indawo ye-core /1C (ichashazi elinsomi), lapho indawo yaseKaronga igqanyiswa khona njengohlaka oluluhlaza, kanye nendawo yombhede waseLuchamange igqanyisiwe. njengebhokisi elimhlophe.(B) Ingxenye esenyakatho yesigodi saseMalawi, ebonisa indawo ye-hillshade ehlobene ne-MAL05-2A core, umbhede osele waseChitimwe (isiqephu esinsundu) kanye nendawo yokumbiwa ye-Malawi Early Mesolithic Project (MEMSAP) (ichashazi eliphuzi) );CHA, Chaminade;MGD, idolobhana laseMwanganda;NGA, Ngara;SS, Sadara South;I-VIN, isithombe somtapo wezincwadi;WW, Beluga.
Iminyaka emaphakathi ye-OSL (umugqa obomvu) nobubanzi bephutha obungu-1-σ (25% obumpunga), yonke iminyaka ye-OSL ehlobene nokuba khona kwezinto zobuciko ezitholakala endaweni e-Karonga.Iminyaka yobudala ehlobene nedatha ye-ka edlule engu-125 ibonisa (A) izilinganiso zokuminyana kwezinhlamvu zayo yonke iminyaka ye-OSL kusukela kuma-alluvial fan sediments, okubonisa ukunqwabelana kwabalandeli be-sedimentary/alluvial (cyan), nokwakhiwa kabusha kwezinga lamanzi echibi okusekelwe kumanani wesici esiyinhloko (PCA) Aquatic izinsalela namaminerali e-authigenic (21) (okuluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka) asuka kumongo we-MAL05-1B/1C.(B) Kusuka ku-MAL05-1B/1C core (okumnyama, inani elisondele ku-7000 ngenkanyezi) kanye ne-MAL05-2A core (grey), izibalo ze-macromolecular carbon per gram ezijwayele izinga lokudilika.(C) I-Margalef species richness index (Dmg) kusuka ku-MAL05-1B/1C core fossil pollen.(D) Amaphesenti empova yezinsalela ezivela e-Compositae, i-miombo woodland ne-Olea europaea, kanye (E) Amaphesenti empova yezinsalela ezivela e-Poaceae nase-Podocarpus.Yonke idatha ye-pollen ivela ku-MAL05-1B/1C core.Izinombolo ezingenhla zibhekisela kumasampuli e-OSL angawodwana achazwe kuThebula S1 kuya ku-S3.Umehluko ekutholakaleni kwedatha nokulungiswa kungenxa yezikhawu ezihlukene zamasampula kanye nokutholakala kwezinto ezibalulekile kumongo.Umfanekiso u-S9 ukhombisa amarekhodi ekhabhoni amabili amakhulu aguqulelwe ku-z-izikolo.
(Chitimwe) Ukuzinza kokwakheka kwezwe ngemva kokwakheka kwabalandeli kuboniswa ukwakheka kwenhlabathi ebomvu kanye nama-carbonates akha inhlabathi, amboza ama-sediments amise okwefeni kuyo yonke indawo yocwaningo (Umbhalo ongeziwe kanye neThebula S4).Ukwakhiwa kwabalandeli be-Late Pleistocene alluvial eLake Malawi Basin akugcini nje endaweni yaseKaronga.Cishe amakhilomitha angama-320 eningizimu-mpumalanga yeMozambique, ukujula kwe-nuclide yasemhlabeni ye-26Al kanye ne-10Be ikhawulela ukwakheka kombhede we-Luchamange wenhlabathi ebomvu ye-alluvial ibe ngu-119 kuya ku-27 ka (23).Lo mkhawulo obanzi weminyaka yobudala uhambisana nokulandelana kwezikhathi kwe-OSL engxenyeni esentshonalanga yeLake Malawi Basin futhi ubonisa ukwanda kwabalandeli besifunda be-alluvial eLate Pleistocene.Lokhu kusekelwa idatha evela kurekhodi lomgogodla wechibi, okubonisa ukuthi izinga eliphezulu lokudilika lihambisana nama-240 ka, anenani eliphakeme kakhulu elingu-ca.130 kanye no-85 ka (umbhalo ongeziwe) (21).
Ubufakazi bokuqala bokuhlaliswa kwabantu kule ndawo buhlobene nenhlabathi yaseChitimwe ekhonjwe ku ~92 ± 7 ka.Lo mphumela usekelwe ku-605 m3 wenhlabathi embiwe kusukela ku-14 sub-centimeter yokulawulwa kwendawo yokumbiwa kwemivubukulo kanye no-147 m3 wenhlabathi kusuka emigodini yokuhlola ye-archaeological engu-46, elawulwa ngokuqondile kuya ku-20 cm futhi ilawulwa ngokuvundlile ibe amamitha angu-2 (Umbhalo ongeziwe kuya ku-S3 Figures) Ngaphezu kwalokho, siphinde sahlola amakhilomitha angu-147.5, sahlela imigodi yokuhlola yokwakheka komhlaba engu-40, futhi sahlaziya izinsalela zamasiko ezingaphezu kuka-38,000 kwezingu-60 zazo (Amathebula S5 kanye ne-S6) (18).Lolu phenyo olunzulu kanye nokumba kubonisa ukuthi nakuba abantu basendulo kuhlanganise nabantu bokuqala besimanje kungenzeka ukuthi bahlala endaweni mayelana ne-92 ka edlule, ukuqoqwa kwezinsalela ezihambisana nokukhuphuka kanye nokuqiniswa kweLake Malawi akuzange kulondoloze ubufakazi bemivubukulo kuze kube yiFomu umbhede waseChitimwe.
Idatha yemivubukulo isekela umbono wokuthi ekupheleni kwe-Quaternary, ukwanda okumise okwefeni kanye nemisebenzi yabantu enyakatho yeMalawi yayikhona ngamanani amakhulu, futhi izinsalela zamasiko zazingezohlobo lwezinye izingxenye ze-Afrika ezihlobene nabantu bokuqala besimanje.Ama-artifact amaningi enziwe ngamatshe omfula e-quartzite noma e-quartz, ane-radial, i-Levallois, iplathifomu kanye nokunciphisa okungahleliwe okuyisisekelo (Umfanekiso S4).Ama-artifacts okuxilongwa kwe-Morphological abangelwa ikakhulukazi indlela ye-Mesolithic Age (MSA)-specific Levallois-type, osekukhona okungenani ama-ka angama-315 e-Afrika kuze kube manje (24).Umbhede ophakeme kakhulu waseChitimwe waqhubeka kwaze kwaba yi-Holocene yokuqala, equkethe izehlakalo ezisatshalaliswa kancane ze-Late Stone Age, futhi kwatholakala ukuthi uhlobene nabadobi abangasekho be-Pleistocene kanye nabaqoqi beHolocene e-Afrika yonkana.Ngokuphambene, amasiko amathuluzi amatshe (njengamathuluzi amakhulu okusika) ngokuvamile ahlotshaniswa ne-Early Middle Pleistocene awavamile.Lapho lokhu kwenzeke khona, kutholwe kuma-sediments ane-MSA ngasekupheleni kwe-Pleistocene, hhayi ezigabeni zokuqala zokubekwa (Ithebula S4) (18).Nakuba isayithi lalikhona ngo-~92 ka, isikhathi esimele kakhulu somsebenzi womuntu kanye nokufakwa kwabalandeli be-alluvial kwenzeka ngemva kuka-~70 ka, okuchazwe kahle isethi yeminyaka ye-OSL (Umfanekiso 2).Siqinisekise le phethini ngeminyaka engu-25 eshicilelwe kanye neminyaka engu-50 ye-OSL eyayingashicilelwe ngaphambilini (Umfanekiso 2 kanye namaThebula S1 ukuya ku-S3).Lokhu kukhombisa ukuthi phakathi kokunqunywa kweminyaka engama-75, abangama-70 bathola ama-sediments ngemuva kwe-70 ka.Umfanekiso 2 ubonisa iminyaka engu-40 ehlotshaniswa nezinto zobuciko ze-in-situ ze-MSA, ngokuhlobene nezinkomba eziyinhloko ze-paleoenvironmental ezishicilelwe kusukela maphakathi ne-MAL05-1B/1C isigodi esimaphakathi (25) kanye nesikhungo sechibi esisenyakatho esingakashicilelwa ngaphambili se-MAL05-2A.Amalahle (eduze kwabalandeli abakhiqiza iminyaka ye-OSL).
Sisebenzisa idatha emisha evela ekuvubukulweni kwemivubukulo ye-phytoliths kanye ne-micromorphology yomhlabathi, kanye nedatha yomphakathi mayelana nempova yezinsalela, amalahle amakhulu, izinsalela zasemanzini kanye namaminerali ayiqiniso avela emnyombweni we-Malawi Lake Drilling Project, sakhe kabusha ubudlelwano bomuntu be-MSA neLake Malawi.Thatha isimo sezulu kanye nezimo zemvelo zesikhathi esifanayo (21).Ama-ejenti amabili okugcina ayisisekelo esiyinhloko sokwakha kabusha ukujula kwechibi elihlobene kusukela emuva kokungaphezulu kuka-1200 ka (21), futhi afaniswa nempova namasampula e-macrocarbon aqoqwe endaweni efanayo emnyombo we-~636 ka (25) esikhathini esidlule. .Ama-cores amade kakhulu (MAL05-1B kanye ne-MAL05-1C; 381 kanye nama-90 m ngokulandelanayo) aqoqwe cishe amakhilomitha ayi-100 eningizimu-mpumalanga yendawo yephrojekthi ye-archaeological.Inkaba emfushane (MAL05-2A; 41 m) yaqoqwa cishe amakhilomitha angama-25 empumalanga yoMfula iNorth Rukulu (Umfanekiso 1).I-MAL05-2A core ibonisa izimo ze-paleoenvironmental zasemhlabeni endaweni ye-Kalunga, kuyilapho i-MAL05-1B/1C core ingakutholi okokufaka komfula okuqondile okuvela ku-Kalunga, ngakho-ke ingabonisa kangcono izimo zesifunda.
Izinga lokubeka elirekhodwe kumongo wokubhola oyinhlanganisela we-MAL05-1B/1C liqale ukusuka ku-240 ka futhi lenyuka lisuka kunani elimaphakathi lesikhathi eside lika-0.24 laya ku-0.88 m/ka (Umfanekiso S5).Ukwanda kokuqala kuhlobene nezinguquko ekukhanyeni kwelanga okuguquguqukayo kwe-orbital, okuzodala izinguquko ze-amplitude ephezulu ezingeni lechibi ngalesi sikhathi sokuphumula (25).Kodwa-ke, lapho i-orbital eccentricity yehla ngemva kuka-85 ka futhi isimo sezulu sizinzile, izinga lokunciphisa lisephezulu (0.68 m/ka).Lokhu kwaqondana nerekhodi le-OSL yasemhlabeni, elibonise ubufakazi obuningi bokunwetshwa kwabalandeli be-alluvial ngemva cishe kuka-92 ka, futhi lalihambisana nedatha yokuba sengozini ebonisa ukuhlobana okuhle phakathi kokuguguleka nomlilo ngemva kuka-85 ka (Umbhalo ongeziwe kanye neThebula S7) .Ngokubuka ububanzi bephutha lokulawula okutholakalayo kwe-geochronological, akunakwenzeka ukwahlulela ukuthi le sethi yobudlelwano ishintsha kancane kusukela ekuqhubekeleni phambili kwenqubo ephindaphindayo noma iqhuma ngokushesha lapho ifinyelela endaweni ebalulekile.Ngokwemodeli ye-geophysical ye-basin evolution, kusukela ku-Middle Pleistocene (20), isandiso se-rift kanye nokuncishiswa okuhlobene kwehlile, ngakho-ke akusona isizathu esiyinhloko senqubo ebanzi yokwakhiwa kwabalandeli esiyinqume ngokuyinhloko ngemva kuka-92 ka.
Kusukela e-Middle Pleistocene, isimo sezulu kube yisona sici esilawulayo sezinga lamanzi echibi (26).Ngokucacile, ukuphakanyiswa kwesigodi esisenyakatho kuvale indlela ephumayo ekhona.800 ka ukuze ujulise ichibi lize lifike embundwini wokuphakama kwendlela yokuphuma yesimanje (21).Njengoba isemaphethelweni aseningizimu echibi, le ndawo yokuphuma yayinikeza umkhawulo ophezulu wezinga lamanzi echibi phakathi nezikhawu ezimanzi (kuhlanganise nanamuhla), kodwa yavumela umcengezi ukuba uvale njengoba izinga lamanzi echibini lehla ngezikhathi ezomile (27).Ukwakhiwa kabusha kwezinga lechibi kubonisa imijikelezo eyomile nemanzi eshintshanayo esikhathini esidlule esingu-636 ka.Ngokobufakazi obuvela kumpova yezinsalela, izikhathi zesomiso esidlulele (>95% ukuncishiswa okuphelele kwamanzi) okuhlotshaniswa nokukhanya okuphansi kwelanga kwasehlobo kuholele ekwandeni kwezimila ezimaphakathi ogwadule, izihlahla zivinjelwe emigwaqweni yamanzi unomphela (27).Lokhu kwehla (kwechibi) kuhlotshaniswa ne-pollen spectra, okubonisa ingxenye ephezulu yotshani (80% noma ngaphezulu) nama-xerophytes (Amaranthaceae) ngezindleko zentela yesihlahla kanye nokunotha kwezinhlobo eziphansi (25).Ngokuphambene, lapho leli chibi lifinyelela amazinga esimanje, uhlaza oluhlobene eduze namahlathi asezintabeni zase-Afrika ngokuvamile lufinyelela ogwini lwechibi [cishe amamitha angu-500 ngaphezu kogu lolwandle (masl)].Namuhla, amahlathi asezintabeni zase-Afrika avela kuphela ngeziqephu ezincane ezingaphezu kuka-1500 masl (25, 28).
Isikhathi sesomiso sakamuva kakhulu senzeke kusuka ku-104 kuya ku-86 ka.Ngemva kwalokho, nakuba izinga lechibi labuyela ezimeni eziphakeme, ihlathi le-miombo elivulekile elinenani elikhulu lamakhambi nezithako zemifino kwaba yinto evamile (27, 28).I-tax yasehlathini lase-Afrika ebaluleke kakhulu i-Podocarpus pine, engakaze ibuyele enanini elifana neleveli ephakeme yangaphambilini ngemva kuka-85 ka (10.7 ± 7.6% ngemva kuka-85 ka, kuyilapho izinga elifanayo lechibi ngaphambi kuka-85 ka lingama-29.8 ± 11.8% ).Inkomba ye-Margalef (Dmg) iphinde ibonise ukuthi ukunotha kwezinhlobo zama-ka angu-85 edlule kungu-43% ngaphansi kwezinga eliphezulu lechibi eliqhubekayo (2.3 ± 0.20 kanye no-4.6 ± 1.21, ngokulandelana), isibonelo, phakathi kuka-420 no-345 ka (Isengezo umbhalo kanye nezibalo S5 kanye ne-S6) (25).Amasampula empova kusukela cishe esikhathini.88 kuya ku-78 ka futhi iqukethe iphesenti eliphezulu lempova ye-Compositae, engabonisa ukuthi uhlaza luphazamisekile futhi lungaphakathi kwebanga lamaphutha osuku oludala kakhulu lapho abantu behlala endaweni.
Sisebenzisa indlela yesimo sezulu esingavamile (29) ukuze sihlaziye idatha ye-paleoecological kanye ne-paleoclimate yama-cores ambiwe ngaphambi nangemuva kuka-85 ka, futhi sihlole ubudlelwano bemvelo phakathi kwezimila, ukuchichima kwezinhlobo zezilwane, nemvula kanye nenkoleloze yokuhlukanisa ukubikezela kwesimo sezulu esimsulwa okubonisiwe.Shayela imodi eyisisekelo engu-~550 ka.Lesi simiso sezinto eziphilayo esishintshile sithintwa izimo zezulu ezigcwala echibini kanye nemililo, okubonakala ngokuntuleka kwezinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo kanye nenhlanganisela entsha yezitshalo.Ngemva kwenkathi yokugcina yokomisa, kwatholakala izingxenye ezithile zehlathi kuphela, okuhlanganisa izingxenye ezikwazi ukumelana nomlilo zamahlathi asezintabeni zase-Afrika, njengamafutha omnqumo, nezingxenye zamahlathi asezindaweni ezishisayo ezingashi, njengeCeltis (Umbhalo Owengeziwe kanye Nomfanekiso S5) ( 25).Ukuhlola lo mbono, senze imodeli yamazinga amanzi echibi asuselwe ku-ostracode kanye nokuthatha indawo yamaminerali e-authigenic njengokuguquguqukayo okuzimele (21) nokuhluka okuncikile okufana namalahle nempova okungase kuthikamezwe ukwanda komlilo (25).
Ukuze sihlole ukufana noma umehluko phakathi kwalezi zinhlanganisela ngezikhathi ezahlukene, sisebenzise impova evela ku-Podocarpus (isihlahla esihlala siluhlaza), utshani (utshani), nomnqumo (ingxenye ekwazi ukumelana nomlilo yamahlathi asezintabeni zase-Afrika) ukuze sihlaziye i-principal coordinate (PCoA), kanye ne-miombo (ingxenye eyinhloko yehlathi namuhla).Ngokuhlela i-PCoA endaweni ehlanganisiwe emele izinga lechibi lapho kwakhiwa inhlanganisela ngayinye, sihlole ukuthi inhlanganisela yempova ishintsha kanjani ngokuphathelene nemvula nokuthi lobu budlelwano bushintsha kanjani ngemva kuka-85 ka (Umfanekiso 3 kanye noMfanekiso S7).Ngaphambi kuka-85 ka, amasampula asuselwa ku-gramineous ahlanganiswe ezimeni ezomile, kuyilapho amasampula asuselwa ku-podocarpus ehlanganiswa ezimeni ezimanzi.Ngokuphambene, amasampuli ngemva kuka-85 ka ahlanganiswe namasampuli amaningi ngaphambi kuka-85 ka futhi anamanani aphakathi nendawo ahlukile, okubonisa ukuthi ukwakheka kwawo akujwayelekile ezimweni zemvula ezifanayo.Isikhundla sabo ku-PCoA sibonisa ithonya le-Olea ne-miombo, kokubili okuthandwa ngaphansi kwezimo ezivame ukushisa.Kumasampuli angemva kuka-85 ka, i-Podocarpus pine yayichichima kuphela kumasampuli amathathu alandelanayo, enzeke ngemva kokuqalisa kwesikhawu phakathi kuka-78 no-79 ka.Lokhu kusikisela ukuthi ngemva kokwanda kokuqala kwemvula, ihlathi libonakala lilulama isikhashana ngaphambi kokuba libhidlike.
Iphuzu ngalinye limelela isampula yempova eyodwa endaweni ethile ngesikhathi, kusetshenziswa umbhalo ongeziwe kanye nemodeli yobudala kumfanekiso 1. S8.Ivekhtha imelela isiqondiso kanye negradient yoshintsho, futhi ivektha ende imelela ithrendi enamandla.Indawo engaphansi imele izinga lamanzi echibini njengokumelela imvula;okuluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka okumnyama kuphakeme.Inani elimaphakathi lamanani wesici se-PCoA linikezwa idatha ngemva kuka-85 ka (idayimane elibomvu) kanye nayo yonke idatha esuka kumazinga echibi afanayo ngaphambi kuka-85 ka (idayimane eliphuzi).Kusetshenziswa idatha yayo yonke i-636 ka, "izinga lechibi elilingiswayo" liphakathi kuka -0.130-σ kanye -0.198-σ eduze nenani le-eigenvalue lezinga lechibi le-PCA.
Ukuze sitadishe ubudlelwano phakathi kwempova, izinga lamanzi echibi namalahle, sisebenzise ukuhlaziywa kwe-nonparametric multivariate of variance (NP-MANOVA) ukuze siqhathanise "indawo" iyonke (emelwe i-matrix yedatha yempova, izinga lamanzi echibi kanye namalahle) ngaphambili. futhi ngemva 85 ka inguquko.Sithole ukuthi ukuhluka nokuvumelana okutholakala kule matrix yedatha kungumehluko obalulekile ngokwezibalo ngaphambi nangemuva kuka-85 ka (Ithebula 1).
Idatha yethu yasemhlabeni we-paleoenvironmental evela kuma-phytoliths nenhlabathi emaphethelweni e-West Lake iyahambisana nencazelo esekelwe kummeleli wechibi.Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi naphezu kwezinga eliphezulu lamanzi echibini, indawo iye yaguqulwa yaba indawo egcwele ihlathi elivulekile elinezikhotha kanye nezikhotha ezinotshani, njenganamuhla (25).Zonke izindawo ezihlaziywe ama-phytoliths onqenqemeni olusentshonalanga lomcengezi zingemuva kuka-~45 ka futhi zibonisa inani elikhulu lekhava ye-arboreal ebonisa izimo ezimanzi.Kodwa-ke, bakholelwa ukuthi iningi lembongolo yemboza ngezimbali isesimweni sehlathi elivulekile eligcwele uqalo notshani obuthuthumelayo.Ngokusho kwedatha ye-phytolith, izihlahla zesundu ezingashi (Arecaceae) zikhona kuphela ogwini lwechibi, futhi azivamile noma azikho ezindaweni zokuvubukula ezimaphakathi nezwe (Ithebula S8) (30).
Ngokuvamile, izimo ezimanzi kodwa ezivulekile ku-Pleistocene sekwephuzile nazo zingathathwa kusukela kuma-paleosols asemhlabeni (19).Ubumba lwechweba kanye ne-carbonate yenhlabathi ewuxhaxha kusukela endaweni yemivubukulo yase-Mwanganda Village ingalandelelwa emuva ku-40 kuya ku-28 cal ka BP (eyakalwa ngaphambilini i-Qian'anni) (Ithebula S4).Izendlalelo zenhlabathi ye-carbonate embhedeni we-Chitimwe ngokuvamile ziyizingqimba ze-calcareous (Bkm) ne-argillaceous ne-carbonate (Btk), okubonisa indawo yokuzinza kwe-geomorphological okuhlobene kanye nokuhlaliswa kancane okuvela kubalandeli be-alluvial abafinyelela kude Cishe ama-29 cal ka BP (Okwengeza. umbhalo).Inhlabathi egugulekile, eqinile ye-lateralite (itshe le-lithic) eyakheke ezinsalela zabalandeli basendulo ibonisa izimo zezwe ezivulekile (31) kanye nemvula eqinile yesizini (32), okubonisa umthelela oqhubekayo walezi zimo kukwakheka kwezwe.
Ukwesekwa kwendima yomlilo kulolu shintsho kuvela kumarekhodi amalahle amakhulu abhanqiwe wemishini yokumba, kanye nokungena kwamalahle asuka ku-Central Basin (MAL05-1B/1C) ngokuvamile kwenyukile kusuka cishe.175 amakhadi.Inani elikhulu leziqongo liyalandela phakathi cishe.Ngemva kuka-135 kanye no-175 ka-ka kanye no-85 kanye no-100 ka, izinga lechibi lasimama, kodwa ukunotha kwehlathi nezinhlobo zezilwane akuzange kuphinde kutholakale (Umbhalo ongeziwe, Umfanekiso 2 kanye noMfanekiso S5).Ubudlelwano phakathi kokungena kwamalahle nokuba sengozini kazibuthe kwenhlabathi yechibi kungase futhi kubonise amaphethini omlando womlilo wesikhathi eside (33).Sebenzisa idatha evela kuLyons et al.(34) I-Lake Malawi iqhubekile nokucekela phansi indawo eshile ngemva kuka-85 ka, okusho ukuhlobana okuhle (i-Spearman's Rs = 0.2542 kanye ne-P = 0.0002; Ithebula S7), kuyilapho ama-sediments amadala abonisa ubuhlobo obuhlukile (Rs = -0.2509 kanye no-P < 0.0001).Esigodini esisenyakatho, umnyombo omfushane we-MAL05-2A unephoyinti lokuphola elijule kakhulu, futhi i-Toba tuff encane ingu-~74 kuya ku-75 ka (35).Nakuba ingenawo umbono wesikhathi eside, ithola okokufaka ngokuqondile kusuka kumcengezi lapho idatha ye-archaeological itholakala khona.Amarekhodi amalahle omgodi osenyakatho abonisa ukuthi kusukela kuphawu lwe-Toba crypto-tephra, okokufaka kwamalahle ayingozi kuye kwanda kancane phakathi nesikhathi lapho ubufakazi bemivubukulo buvame kakhulu (Umfanekiso 2B).
Ubufakazi bomlilo owenziwe umuntu bungase bubonise ukusetshenziswa ngamabomu esikalini sokwakheka kwezwe, ukusabalala kwabantu okubangela ukuthungela okuningi noma okukhulu endaweni, ukuguqulwa kokutholakala kukaphethiloli ngokuvuna amahlathi angaphansi, noma inhlanganisela yale misebenzi.Abazingeli banamuhla basebenzisa umlilo ukuze bashintshe imivuzo yokudla (2).Imisebenzi yabo yandisa inala yezisulu, igcina isimo se-mosaic, futhi yandise ukuhlukahluka okushisayo kanye nokuhlukahluka kwezigaba zokulandelana (13).Umlilo nawo ubalulekile emisebenzini yasendaweni efana nokushisisa, ukupheka, ukuzivikela kanye nokuzijabulisa (14).Ngisho nomehluko omncane ekusetshenzisweni komlilo ngaphandle kwemibani yemvelo ungashintsha amaphethini wokulandelana kwehlathi, ukutholakala kukaphethiloli, kanye nenkathi yokudubula.Ukwehliswa kwekhava lezihlahla kanye nezihlahla ezingaphansi kungase kukhuphule ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi, futhi ukulahlekelwa kwezinhlobonhlobo zezinhlobo kule ndawo kuhlobene eduze nokulahlekelwa kwemiphakathi yamahlathi asezintabeni zase-Afrika (25).
Embhalweni wemivubukulo ngaphambi kokuba i-MSA iqale, ukulawulwa komlilo komuntu kusungulwe kahle (15), kodwa kuze kube manje, ukusetshenziswa kwayo njengethuluzi lokuphatha indawo kubhalwe kuphela ezimweni ezimbalwa ze-Paleolithic.Lokhu kufaka phakathi e-Australia.40 ka (36), Highland New Guinea.45 ka (37) isivumelwano sokuthula.50 kaNiah Cave (38) endaweni ephansi yaseBorneo.Emazweni aseMelika, lapho abantu beqala ukungena kulezi zimiso zemvelo, ikakhulukazi eminyakeni engu-20 ka (16), ukuthungela okwenziwayo kwakubhekwa njengento eyinhloko ekumisweni kabusha kwemiphakathi yezitshalo nezilwane.Lezi ziphetho kufanele zisekelwe ebufakazini obufanele, kodwa esimweni sokugqagqana okuqondile kwedatha ye-archaeological, geological, geomorphological, kanye ne-paleoenvironmental, impikiswano ye-causality iye yaqiniswa.Nakuba idatha ewumgogodla wamanzi asogwini lwase-Afrika ngaphambilini inikeze ubufakazi bezinguquko zomlilo esikhathini esidlule cishe ngo-400 ka (9), lapha sinikeza ubufakazi bethonya lomuntu kusukela kumasethi edatha aphathelene nemivubukulo, i-paleoenvironmental, kanye ne-geomorphological.
Ukuhlonzwa kwemililo eyenziwe ngumuntu kumarekhodi e-paleoenvironmental kudinga ubufakazi bemisebenzi yomlilo kanye noshintsho lwesikhashana noma lwendawo yezitshalo, okufakazela ukuthi lezi zinguquko azibikezelwa yimingcele yesimo sezulu kuphela, kanye nokugqagqana kwesikhashana/kwendawo phakathi kwezinguquko ezimweni zomlilo kanye nezinguquko kubantu. amarekhodi (29) Lapha, ubufakazi bokuqala bokusabalala kwe-MSA kanye nokwakheka kwabalandeli be-alluvial endaweni yaseLake Malawi kwenzeka cishe ekuqaleni kokuhlelwa kabusha okukhulu kwezimila zesifunda.85 amakhadi.Ubuningi bamalahle kumongo we-MAL05-1B/1C bubonisa ukuthambekela kwesifunda kokukhiqizwa namalahle, cishe ku-150 ka uma kuqhathaniswa nalo lonke irekhodi elingu-636 ka (Izibalo S5, S9, kanye ne-S10).Lolu shintsho lubonisa umnikelo obalulekile womlilo ekubumbeni ukwakheka kwe-ecosystem, engenakuchazwa yisimo sezulu kuphela.Ezimweni zomlilo wemvelo, ukuthungela kombani kuvame ukwenzeka ekupheleni kwenkathi eyomile (39).Kodwa-ke, uma uphethiloli wome ngokwanele, imililo eyenziwa abantu ingase ibaswe noma nini.Ngokwesilinganiso sendawo yesigameko, abantu bangawushintsha ngokuqhubekayo umlilo ngokutheza izinkuni ngaphansi kwehlathi.Umphumela wanoma yiluphi uhlobo lomlilo owenziwe umuntu ukuthi unamandla okubangela ukudliwa kwezitshalo ezinokhuni, okuhlala unyaka wonke, nakuzo zonke izikali.
ENingizimu Afrika, ekuqaleni kuka-164 ka (12), umlilo wawusetshenziselwa ukushisa amatshe okwenza amathuluzi.Kusukela kudala ngo-170 ka (40), umlilo wawusetshenziswa njengethuluzi lokupheka izilimo eziyizigaxa ezinesitashi, kusetshenziswa umlilo ngokugcwele ezikhathini zasendulo.Indawo Ephumelelayo Yezinsizakusebenza (41).Imililo yezwe inciphisa isembozo se-arboreal futhi iyithuluzi elibalulekile lokunakekela izindawo ezinotshani neziqephu zehlathi, okuyizici ezichazayo ze-ecosystem eqondiswa abantu (13).Uma inhloso yokushintsha uhlaza noma ukuziphatha kwezilwane ezifuywayo kuwukwandisa ukusha okwenziwa umuntu, khona-ke lokhu kuziphatha kumelela ukwanda kobunzima bokulawula nokuthumela umlilo ngabantu bokuqala banamuhla uma kuqhathaniswa nabantu bokuqala, futhi kubonisa ukuthi ubuhlobo bethu nomlilo sebudlule. ukushintsha kokuncikana (7).Ukuhlaziya kwethu kunikeza indlela eyengeziwe yokuqonda izinguquko ekusetshenzisweni komlilo ngabantu ku-Late Pleistocene, kanye nomthelela walezi zinguquko endaweni yabo nemvelo.
Ukwandiswa kwabalandeli be-Late Quaternary alluvial endaweni yaseKaronga kungase kube ngenxa yezinguquko zomjikelezo wokushiswa komlilo ngezikhathi ezithile zonyaka ngaphansi kwezimo eziphakeme kunesilinganiso semvula, okuholela ekwandeni kokuguguleka kwentaba.Indlela yalesi sigameko kungase kube ukusabela kwesilinganiso samanzi esiqhutshwa isiphazamiso esibangelwe umlilo, ukuguguleka okuthuthukisiwe nokuqhubekayo kwengxenye engaphezulu yendawo yamanzi, kanye nokwanda kwamafeni e-alluvial endaweni yase-piedmont eduze neLake Malawi.Lokhu kusabela kungase kuhlanganise ukushintsha izakhiwo zenhlabathi ukuze kuncishiswe ukungeneka, kuncishiswe ukuhwalala komhlaba, nokwandisa ukugeleza ngenxa yenhlanganisela yezimo zemvula ephezulu kanye nokwemboza okuncishisiwe kwe-arboreal (42).Ukutholakala kwezinsalela kuqala kuthuthukiswa ngokuxebula izinto zokumboza, futhi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, amandla enhlabathi angase ehle ngenxa yokushisa nokuncipha kwamandla ezimpande.Ukukhishwa kwenhlabathi engaphezulu kwandisa ukugeleza kwentlenga, okuhambisana nokunqwabelana okumise okwefeni ezansi nomfula futhi kusheshisa ukwakheka kwenhlabathi ebomvu endaweni emise okwefeni.
Izinto eziningi zingalawula ukusabela kwendawo ekushintsheni kwezimo zomlilo, eziningi zazo ezisebenza phakathi nesikhathi esifushane (42-44).Isignali esiyihlanganisa lapha isobala esikalini sesikhathi senkulungwane yeminyaka.Ukuhlaziya namamodeli wokuguquguquka kwemvelo akhombisa ukuthi ngokuphazamiseka kwezitshalo okubangelwa imililo yequbula ephindaphindwayo, izinga lokudukisa lishintshe kakhulu esikalini sesikhathi senkulungwane yeminyaka (45, 46).Ukuntuleka kwamarekhodi ezinsalela zesifunda ahambisana nezinguquko eziphawuliwe kumarekhodi elahle nezimila kuphazamisa ukwakhiwa kabusha kwemithelela yokuziphatha kwabantu kanye nezinguquko zemvelo ekwakhiweni kwemiphakathi edla uhlaza.Kodwa-ke, izilwane ezinkulu ezidla uhlaza ezihlala ezindaweni ezivuleke kakhulu zidlala indima ekuzinakekeleni nasekuvimbeleni ukuhlasela kwezimila ezinokhuni (47).Ubufakazi bezinguquko ezingxenyeni ezihlukene zemvelo akufanele bulindeleke ukuthi zenzeke ngesikhathi esisodwa, kodwa kufanele bubonakale njengochungechunge lwemiphumela eqongelelekayo engenzeka esikhathini eside (11).Sisebenzisa indlela yesimo sezulu esingavamile (29), sibheka umsebenzi womuntu njengento eyinhloko yokushayela ekulolongeni isimo sezwe lasenyakatho yeMalawi ngesikhathi se-Late Pleistocene.Kodwa-ke, le miphumela ingase isekelwe emlandweni wangaphambili, ongacacile kangako wokusebenzelana kwabantu nemvelo.Ukuphakama kwamalahle okuvele kurekhodi le-paleoenvironmental ngaphambi kosuku lokuqala lwemivubukulo kungase kuhlanganise ingxenye ye-anthropogenic engabangeli izinguquko zesistimu yezemvelo efanayo njengoba kuqoshwe kamuva, futhi ingabandakanyi imali eyanele ukukhombisa ngokuzethemba umsebenzi womuntu.
Izinhlaka ezimfushane zenzinga, njengalezo eziqhamuka eduze kwaseMasoko Lake Basin eTanzania, noma ama-sediment cores amafushane eLake Malawi, akhombisa ukuthi impova echichimayo yotshani kanye ne-woodland taxa ishintshile, okubangelwa iminyaka engama-45 edlule.Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kwemvelo ka (48-50).Nokho, ukubhekwa isikhathi eside kuphela kwerekhodi lempova laseLake Malawi >600 ka, kanye nendawo yokuvubukula yakudala eduze kwalo, lapho kungenzeka khona ukuqonda isimo sezulu, uhlaza, amalahle, nemisebenzi yabantu.Nakuba abantu kungenzeka bavele engxenyeni esenyakatho ye-Lake Malawi basin ngaphambi kuka-85 ka, cishe ama-85 ka, ikakhulukazi ngemva kuka-70 ka, abonisa ukuthi indawo iyathandeka ukuhlala abantu ngemva kokuphela kwenkathi yesomiso esikhulu sokugcina.Ngalesi sikhathi, ukusetshenziswa komlilo okusha noma okujulile/okuvame kakhulu ngabantu kuhlanganiswe nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu kwemvelo ukuze kwakhiwe kabusha ubudlelwano bezemvelo> 550-ka, futhi ekugcineni kwakheka indawo yokwenziwa yangaphambi kwezolimo (Umfanekiso 4).Ngokungafani nezikhathi zangaphambilini, imvelo ye-sedimentary yendawo igcina isayithi le-MSA, okuwumsebenzi wobudlelwane obuphindaphindayo phakathi kwemvelo (ukusabalalisa izinsiza), ukuziphatha komuntu (amaphethini omsebenzi), nokwenza kusebenze abalandeli (ukubekwa/ukungcwatshwa kwesayithi).
(A) Mayelana.400 ka: Akekho umuntu ongabonwa.Izimo ezinomswakama ziyefana nezanamuhla, futhi izinga lechibi liphezulu.Ikhava ye-arboreal ehlukahlukene, engashi.(B) Cishe i-100 ka: Alikho irekhodi lemivubukulo, kodwa ubukhona babantu bungase bubonakale ngokuthutheleka kwamalahle.Izimo ezome kakhulu zenzeka ezindaweni ezomile zamanzi.Itshe eliphansi ngokuvamile liyavezwa futhi izinsalela ezingaphezulu zilinganiselwe.(C) Cishe ama-85 kuya ku-60 ka: Izinga lamanzi echibini liyakhula ngokukhula kwemvula.Ukuba khona kwabantu kungatholakala ngokusebenzisa imivubukulo ngemva kuka-92 ka, futhi ngemva kuka-70 ka, ukushiswa kwezindawo eziphakeme kanye nokwandiswa kwabalandeli be-alluvial kuzolandela.Sekuvele uhlelo lwezitshalo olungahlukene kancane, olumelana nomlilo.(D) Cishe ama-40 kuya ku-20 ka: Ukufakwa kwamalahle emvelo endaweni esenyakatho kunyukile.Ukwakhiwa kwabalandeli be-alluvial kwaqhubeka, kodwa kwaqala ukuba buthaka ekupheleni kwalesi sikhathi.Uma kuqhathaniswa nerekhodi langaphambilini le-636 ka, izinga lechibi lihlala liphakeme futhi lizinzile.
I-Anthropocene imele ukunqwabelana kokuziphatha kokwakha i-niche okuthuthukiswe ezinkulungwaneni zeminyaka, futhi isilinganiso sayo sihlukile ku-Homo sapiens yesimanje (1, 51).Esimeni sanamuhla, ngokwethulwa kwezolimo, izindawo ezenziwe ngabantu ziyaqhubeka nokuba khona futhi ziyaqina, kodwa ziyizandiso zamaphethini asungulwe ngesikhathi se-Pleistocene, kunokunqanyulwa (52).Idatha evela enyakatho yeMalawi ibonisa ukuthi isikhathi soguquko lwemvelo singakhula, sibe nzima futhi siphindaphinde.Lesi sikali soguquko sibonisa ulwazi lwezemvelo oluyinkimbinkimbi lwabantu bakuqala banamuhla futhi sibonisa ukuguquka kwabo ezinhlobonhlobo zezilwane ezibusa umhlaba wonke namuhla.
Ngokwephrothokholi echazwe u-Thompson et al., uphenyo esizeni nokuqoshwa kwezinto zobuciko kanye nezici ze-cobblestone endaweni yocwaningo.(53).Ukubekwa komgodi wokuhlola kanye nokumbiwa kwendawo eyinhloko, okuhlanganisa i-micromorphology kanye nesampula ye-phytolith, kulandele umthetho olandelwayo ochazwe u-Thompson et al.(18) kanye no-Wright et al.(19).Imephu yethu yesistimu yolwazi lwendawo (i-GIS) esekelwe kumephu yokuhlola indawo yaseMalawi yesifunda ibonisa ukuhlobana okucacile phakathi kweChitimwe Beds kanye nezindawo zemivubukulo (Figure S1).Isikhathi esiphakathi kwemigodi yokuhlola yokwakheka komhlaba kanye neyemivubukulo endaweni yaseKaronga ukubamba isampula elimele elibanzi kakhulu (Umfanekiso S2).I-geomorphology kaKaronga, iminyaka yokwakheka komhlaba kanye nocwaningo lwemivubukulo lubandakanya izindlela zokuhlola zezindawo ezine eziyinhloko: izinhlolovo zabahamba ngezinyawo, imigodi yokuhlola imivubukulo, imigodi yokuhlola i-geological kanye nokumbiwa kwezindawo ezinemininingwane.Ndawonye, ​​lawa masu avumela ukwenziwa kwesampula kokuchayeka okuyinhloko kombhede waseChitimwe enyakatho, maphakathi, naseningizimu yeKaronga (Umfanekiso S3).
Uphenyo olusendaweni nokurekhodwa kwezinto zokwenziwa kanye nezici ze-cobblestone endaweni yokuhlola yabahamba ngezinyawo kulandele umthetho olandelwayo ochazwe u-Thompson et al.(53).Le ndlela inezinjongo ezimbili ezibalulekile.Okokuqala ukukhomba izindawo lapho izinsalela zamasiko ziye zaguguleka, bese ubeka imigodi yokuhlola imivubukulo ekhuphukayo kulezi zindawo ukuze kubuyiselwe izinsalela zamasiko endaweni endaweni engcwatshiwe.Umgomo wesibili uwukurekhoda ngokusemthethweni ukusatshalaliswa kwezinto zobuciko, izici zazo, nobuhlobo bazo nomthombo wezinto eziseduze zamatshe (53).Kulo msebenzi, ithimba labantu abathathu lahamba ibanga elingamamitha angu-2 ukuya kwangu-3 isamba samakhilomitha angu-147.5 aqondile, linqamula iningi lemibhede edwetshiwe yaseChitimwe (Ithebula S6).
Umsebenzi uqale wagxila Emibhedeni yaseChitimwe ukuze kwandiswe amasampula ezinto zobuciko ezibonwayo, futhi okwesibili wagxila ezingxenyeni ezinde eziwumugqa ukusuka ogwini lwechibi kuya ezindaweni eziphakeme ezinqamula amayunithi ahlukene e-sedimentary.Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukunakwa okubalulekile kokuthi ama-artifacts atholakala phakathi kwezindawo eziphakeme ezisentshonalanga nogu lwechibi ahlobene kuphela nombhede waseChitimwe noma izinsalela zakamuva ze-Late Pleistocene kanye ne-Holocene.Izinto zobuciko ezitholakala kwamanye amadiphozithi azikho endaweni, zithuthwe zisuka kwezinye izindawo endaweni, njengoba kubonakala ngobuningi bazo, ubukhulu, kanye nezinga lesimo sezulu.
Umgodi wokuhlola wemivubukulo osendaweni kanye nokumbiwa kwendawo eyinhloko, okuhlanganisa i-micromorphology kanye nesampula ye-phytolith, kulandele umthetho olandelwayo ochazwe nguThompson et al.(18, 54) kanye no-Wright et al.(19, 55).Inhloso eyinhloko ukuqonda ukusatshalaliswa okungaphansi komhlaba kwama-artifact kanye nenhlabathi emise okwefeni endaweni enkulu.Izinto zobuciko zivame ukugqitshwa ekujuleni kuzo zonke izindawo emibhedeni yaseChitimwe, ngaphandle kwasemaphethelweni, lapho ukuguguleka sekuqalile ukususa phezulu kwenhlabathi.Phakathi nophenyo olungakahleleki, abantu ababili badlula ngasemibhedeni yaseChitimwe, eyayikhonjiswe njengezici zemephu ebalazweni lokuma komhlaba likahulumeni waseMalawi.Lapho laba bantu behlangana namahlombe emfucumfucu yaseChitimwe Bed, baqala ukuhamba onqenqemeni, lapho babekwazi khona ukubona izinto zobuciko ziguguleka enhlabathini.Ngokutshekisa ukumba kuya phezulu kancane (3 kuya ku-8 m) kusukela ezintweni zobuciko eziguguleka, ukumbiwa kungaveza indawo yazo esendaweni ehlobene nentlenga equkethe kuzo, ngaphandle kwesidingo sokumba okubanzi eceleni.Imigodi yokuhlola ibekwe ngendlela yokuthi iqhele ngamamitha angu-200 kuya kwangu-300 ukusuka kumgodi olandelayo oseduze, ngaleyo ndlela ithwebule izinguquko ku-Chitimwe bed sediment kanye nezinto zobuciko eziqukethwe.Kwezinye izimo, umgodi wokuhlola wembula indawo kamuva eyaba indawo yokumba egcwele.
Yonke imigodi yokuhlola iqala ngesikwele esingu-1 × 2 m, ibheke enyakatho-eningizimu, futhi imbiwa ngamayunithi angama-20 cm, ngaphandle uma umbala, ukuthungwa, noma okuqukethwe kwentlenga kushintsha kakhulu.Qopha i-sedimentology kanye nezakhiwo zenhlabathi yazo zonke izinsalela ezimbiwe, ezidlula ngokulinganayo ngesisefo esomile esingu-5 mm.Uma ukujula kwe-deposition kuqhubeka kudlula i-0.8 kuya ku-1 m, yeka ukumba kwelinye lamamitha-skwele amabili futhi uqhubeke nokumba kwenye, ngaleyo ndlela wenza "isinyathelo" ukuze ukwazi ukungena ezingqimbeni ezijulile ngokuphepha.Bese uqhubeka nokumba kuze kufinyelelwe idwala eliphansi, okungenani amasentimitha angama-40 wenhlabathi eyinyumba ye-archeologically ingaphansi kwenani lezinto zobuciko, noma ukumba kuba okungaphephile (kujule) kakhulu ukuthi kungaqhubeka.Kwezinye izimo, ukujula kokubeka kudinga ukunweba umgodi wokuhlola ube imitha yesikwele yesithathu bese ufaka umsele ngezinyathelo ezimbili.
Imigodi yokuhlola ye-geological ngaphambilini ibonise ukuthi i-Chitimwe Beds ivamise ukuvela kumamephu e-geological ngenxa yombala wayo obomvu ohlukile.Uma zifaka imifudlana ebanzi nezinsalela zemifula, kanye nama-alluvial fan sediments, azihlali zibomvu njalo (19).I-Geology Umgodi wokuhlola wambiwa njengomgodi olula oklanyelwe ukususa intlenga engaphezulu exubile ukuze kwembule uhlaka olungaphansi komhlaba lwezinsalela.Lokhu kuyadingeka ngoba umbhede waseChitimwe uguguleka waba igquma eliwumfuziselo, futhi kunezinsalela ezigoqiwe emthambekeni, ngokuvamile ezingakhi izingxenye zemvelo ezicacile noma ukusikeka.Ngakho-ke, lokhu kumbiwa kwenzeka phezulu kombhede waseChitimwe, kucatshangwa ukuthi kwakukhona ukuxhumana okungaphansi komhlaba phakathi kombhede weChitimwe kanye nombhede wePliocene Chiwondo ngezansi, noma kwenzeka lapho izinsalela zethala lomfula zazidinga ukubhalwa (55).
Ukuvubukulwa okugcwele kwezemivubukulo kwenziwa ezindaweni ezithembisa inani elikhulu lemihlangano yamathuluzi amatshe e-situ, ngokuvamile esekelwe emigodini yokuhlola noma izindawo lapho inani elikhulu lezinsalela zamasiko zingabonakala ziguguleka emthambekeni.Izinsalela ezinkulu zamasiko ezimbiwe zatholwa ezingxenyeni ze-sedimentary ezimbiwe ngokuhlukana endaweni yesikwele esingu-1 × 1 m.Uma ukuminyana kwezinto zobuciko kuphezulu, iyunithi yokumba iyi-spout eyi-10 noma engu-5 cm.Yonke imikhiqizo yamatshe, amathambo e-fossil kanye ne-ocher yadwetshwa ngesikhathi sokumbiwa okukhulu ngakunye, futhi awukho umkhawulo wosayizi.Usayizi wesikrini ngu-5mm.Uma izinsalela zamasiko zitholwa phakathi nenqubo yokumba, zizonikezwa inombolo eyingqayizivele yokutholwa komdwebo wekhodi yebha, futhi izinombolo zokutholwa ochungechungeni olufanayo zizonikezwa okutholakele okuhlungiwe.Izinsalela zamasiko zimakwe ngoyinki ongapheli, zifakwe ezikhwameni ezinamalebula esampula, futhi zihlanganiswe nezinye izinsalela zamasiko ezivela kusizinda esifanayo.Ngemva kokuhlaziywa, zonke izinsalela zamasiko zigcinwa eSikhungweni Samasiko Nemnyuziyamu saseKaronga.
Yonke imivubukulo yenziwa ngokwezigaba zemvelo.Lezi zihlukaniswe ngama-spits, futhi ukujiya kwamathe kuncike ekumineni kwe-artifact (isibonelo, uma ukuminyana kwe-artifact kuphansi, ukujiya kwamathe kuzoba phezulu).Idatha yasemuva (isibonelo, izakhiwo zentlenga, ubudlelwano bangemuva, nokubonwa kokuphazamiseka nokuminyana kwe-artifact) zirekhodwa kusizindalwazi sokufinyelela.Yonke idatha edidiyelwe (isibonelo, okutholiwe okudwetshwe ngamasegimenti, ukuphakama komongo, amakhona ayizikwele, namasampula) kusekelwe kuzixhumanisi ze-Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) (WGS 1984, Zone 36S).Esizeni esikhulu, wonke amaphuzu aqoshwa kusetshenziswa isiteshi esiphelele se-Nikon Nivo C series 5″, esakhiwe kugridi yendawo eduze ngangokunokwenzeka enyakatho ye-UTM.Indawo yekhona elisenyakatho-ntshonalanga yesizinda ngasinye sokumba kanye nendawo yendawo yokumba ngayinye Inani lenhlabathi linikezwe kuThebula S5.
Ingxenye ye-sedimentology nezici zesayensi yenhlabathi yazo zonke izingxenye ezimbiwe zarekhodwa kusetshenziswa Uhlelo Lwekilasi Lengxenye Yezolimo lwase-United States (56).Amayunithi e-Sedimentary acacisiwe ngokusekelwe kusayizi wokusanhlamvu, i-angularity, nezici zokulala.Qaphela ukufakwa okungavamile nokuphazamiseka okuhlobene neyunithi ye-sediment.Ukuthuthukiswa komhlabathi kunqunywa ukunqwabelana kwe-sesquioxide noma i-carbonate emhlabathini ongaphansi komhlaba.Isimo sezulu esingaphansi komhlaba (isibonelo, i-redox, ukwakheka kwezigaxana ezisele ze-manganese) nakho kuyarekhodwa njalo.
Indawo okuqoqwa kuyo amasampula e-OSL inqunywa ngesisekelo sokulinganisa ukuthi yiziphi izinhlayiya ezingase zikhiqize isilinganiso esithembeke kakhulu seminyaka yokungcwatshwa kwenhlabathi.Endaweni yamasampula, kwambiwa imisele ukuze kuvezwe ungqimba lwe-authigenic sedimentary.Qoqa wonke amasampula asetshenziselwa ukuphola kwe-OSL ngokufaka ishubhu lensimbi elikhanyayo (elingaba ngu-4 cm ububanzi kanye namasentimitha angaba ngu-25 ubude) kuphrofayela yentlenga.
I-OSL dating ikala usayizi weqembu lama-electron avaleleke kumakristalu (afana ne-quartz noma i-feldspar) ngenxa yokuchayeka emisebeni ye-ionizing.Iningi lale misebe livela ekuboleni kwama-isotopi anemisebe endaweni ezungezile, futhi inani elincane lezingxenye ezengeziwe ezindaweni ezishisayo zivela ngendlela yemisebe ye-cosmic.Ama-electron athwetshuliwe akhululwa lapho ikristalu ichayeke ekukhanyeni, okwenzeka ngesikhathi sokuthutha (isehlakalo sokungaqini) noma elabhorethri, lapho ukukhanya kwenzeka kwinzwa ekwazi ukuzwa ama-photon (isibonelo, ishubhu le-photomultiplier noma ikhamera eneshajethi idivayisi yokuhlanganisa) Ingxenye engezansi iphuma lapho i-electron ibuyela esimweni esiphansi.Izinhlayiya zequartz ezinosayizi ophakathi kuka-150 no-250 μm zihlukaniswa ngokusefa, ukwelashwa kwe-asidi kanye nokuhlukaniswa kokuqina, futhi zisetshenziswe njengama-aliquots amancane (<100 izinhlayiya) afakwe phezu kwepuleti le-aluminium noma abhojwe emthonjeni ongu-300 x 300 mm Umuntu ngamunye. izinhlayiya zihlaziywa epanini le-aluminium.Umthamo ongcwatshwe ngokuvamile ulinganiselwa kusetshenziswa indlela eyodwa yokuvuselela i-aliquot (57).Ngaphezu kokuhlola umthamo wemisebe otholwe yizinhlamvu, ukuphola kwe-OSL nakho kudinga ukulinganisa izinga lomthamo ngokulinganisa ukugxiliswa kwe-radionuclide endaweni yesampula eqoqiwe kusetshenziswa i-gamma spectroscopy noma ukuhlaziywa kwe-neutron activation, kanye nokunquma isampula yereferensi yomthamo wendawo yonke Indawo nokujula ukungcwatshwa.Ukunqunywa kweminyaka yokugcina kufinyelelwa ngokuhlukanisa umthamo wokungcwaba ngenani lomthamo.Kodwa-ke, uma kukhona ushintsho kumthamo olinganiswa uhlamvu olulodwa noma iqembu lezinhlamvu, imodeli yezibalo iyadingeka ukuze kunqunywe umthamo ongcwatshiwe ofanele ozosetshenziswa.Umthamo ongcwatshiwe ubalwa lapha kusetshenziswa imodeli yenkathi emaphakathi, esimweni sokuqomisana kwe-aliquot eyodwa, noma esimweni sokuqomisana kwezinhlayiyana eyodwa, kusetshenziswa imodeli yengxube elinganiselwe (58).
Amalabhorethri amathathu azimele enze ukuhlaziya kwe-OSL kulolu cwaningo.Izindlela ezinemininingwane ngayinye zelabhorethri ngayinye zikhonjisiwe ngezansi.Ngokuvamile, sisebenzisa indlela yomthamo wokukhiqiza kabusha ukuze sisebenzise i-OSL yokubiza ama-aliquots amancane (amashumi ezinhlamvu) esikhundleni sokusebenzisa ukuhlaziya okusanhlamvu okukodwa.Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi ngesikhathi sokuhlolwa kokukhula kokuvuselelayo, izinga lokutholwa kwesampula encane liphansi (<2%), futhi isignali ye-OSL ayigcwaliswanga ezingeni lesignali yemvelo.Ukuvumelana phakathi kwelabhorethri yokunqunywa kweminyaka, ukungaguquguquki kwemiphumela ngaphakathi naphakathi kwamaphrofayili e-stratigraphic ahloliwe, kanye nokuhambisana nokuchazwa kwe-geomorphological yeminyaka engu-14C yamadwala e-carbonate kuyisisekelo esiyinhloko salokhu kuhlola.Ilabhorethri ngayinye yahlola noma yasebenzisa isivumelwano sokusanhlamvu esisodwa, kodwa yanquma ngokuzimela ukuthi yayingafaneleki ukusetshenziswa kulolu cwaningo.Izindlela ezinemininingwane kanye nezinqubo zokuhlaziya ezilandelwa ilabhorethri ngayinye zinikeziwe ezintweni nezindlela ezengeziwe.
Izinto zobuciko zamatshe ezitholwe ekumbiweni okulawulwayo (i-BRU-I; CHA-I, CHA-II, ne-CHA-III; i-MGD-I, MGD-II, ne-MGD-III; kanye ne-SS-I) zisekelwe ohlelweni lwemethrikhi kanye nekhwalithi. izici.Linganisa isisindo kanye nobukhulu obukhulu bocezu lokusebenza ngalunye (usebenzisa isikali sedijithali ukukala isisindo singu-0.1 g; usebenzisa i-Mitutoyo digital caliper ukukala bonke ubukhulu ngu-0.01 mm).Zonke izinsalela zamasiko nazo zihlukaniswa ngokwezinto ezingavuthiwe (i-quartz, i-quartzite, i-flint, njll.), usayizi wokusanhlamvu (okuhle, ophakathi, omahhadla), ukufana kosayizi wokusanhlamvu, umbala, uhlobo lwe-cortex kanye nokumbozwa, isimo sezulu / ukuzungeza umphetho kanye nebanga lobuchwepheshe. (ephelele noma ehlukene) Ama-cores noma ama-flakes, ama-flakes/izingcezu zamakhona, amatshe esando, amabhomu nokunye).
Umnyombo ulinganiswa ngobude bawo obukhulu;ububanzi obukhulu;ububanzi bungu-15%, 50%, no-85% wobude;ubukhulu obukhulu;ukujiya kungu-15%, 50%, no-85% wobude.Izilinganiso zenziwa futhi ukuze kuhlolwe izakhiwo zevolumu yomgogodla wezicubu ze-hemispherical (radial ne-Levallois).Kokubili ama-cores aqinile naphukile ahlukaniswa ngokwendlela yokusetha kabusha (inkundla eyodwa noma inkundla eminingi, i-radial, i-Levallois, njll.), futhi izibazi eziqinile zibalwa ku-≥15 mm kanye no-≥20% wobude obuyinhloko.Ama-cores anezibazi ezingu-5 noma ngaphansi kuka-15 mm ahlukaniswa ngokuthi "okungahleliwe".Ukumbozwa kwe-cortical kwayo yonke indawo ewumgogodla kuyarekhodwa, futhi ukumbozwa kwekhohlo okuhlobene kohlangothi ngalunye kuqoshwa kumongo wezicubu ze-hemispherical.
Ishidi likalwa ngobude balo obukhulu;ububanzi obukhulu;ububanzi bungu-15%, 50%, no-85% wobude;ubukhulu obukhulu;ukujiya kungu-15%, 50%, no-85% wobude.Chaza izingcezu ngokusho kwezingxenye ezisele (eziseduze, eziphakathi, ezikude, zihlukanise ngakwesokudla futhi zihlukanise kwesokunxele).Ubude bubalwa ngokuhlukanisa ubude obukhulu ngobubanzi obukhulu.Linganisa ububanzi beplathifomu, ukujiya, kanye ne-engeli yeplathifomu yangaphandle yocezu olungaguquki kanye nezingcezu zocezu olusondelene, futhi uhlukanise izingxenyekazi ngokwezinga lokulungiselelwa.Rekhoda ukumbozwa kwe-cortical nendawo kuzo zonke izingcezu nezingcezu.Amaphethelo akude ahlukaniswa ngokohlobo lokunqanyulwa (uphaphe, ihinge, nemfoloko engaphezulu).Ocezwini oluphelele, rekhoda inombolo nendlela yesibazi ocezwini oludlule.Uma uhlangabezana, rekhoda indawo yokuguqulwa kanye nokuhlasela ngokuhambisana nephrothokholi esungulwe nguClarkson (59).Kwaqalwa izinhlelo zokuvuselela eziningi zezinhlanganisela zokumba ukuze kuhlolwe izindlela zokubuyisela kanye nobuqotho bokubekwa kwesayithi.
Izinto ezenziwe ngamatshe ezitholwe emigodini yokuhlola (CS-TP1-21, SS-TP1-16 kanye ne-NGA-TP1-8) zichazwa ngokohlelo olulula kunokumbiwa okulawulwayo.Ku-artifact ngayinye, izici ezilandelayo zarekhodwa: impahla eluhlaza, usayizi wezinhlayiyana, ukumbozwa kwe-cortex, ibanga losayizi, umonakalo wesimo sezulu/umphetho, izingxenye zobuchwepheshe, nokulondolozwa kwezingcezu.Amanothi achazayo ezici zokuxilonga zama-flakes nama-cores aqoshiwe.
Amabhulokhi aphelele enzika asikwa ezingxenyeni ezisobala lapho kumbiwa kanye nemisele yokuma komhlaba.Lawa matshe agxilwa endaweni ngamabhandeshi asimende noma iphepha lasendlini yangasese kanye ne-packaging tape, abese ehanjiswa eGeological Archaeology Laboratory yaseNyuvesi yaseTubingen eJalimane.Lapho, isampula yomiswa ku-40 ° C okungenani amahora angu-24.Bese belashwa ngaphansi kwe-vacuum, kusetshenziswa ingxube ye-polyester resin engathuthukisiwe kanye ne-styrene ngesilinganiso se-7: 3.I-Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide isetshenziswa njenge-catalyst, ingxube ye-resin-styrene (3 kuya ku-5 ml/l).Uma ingxube ye-resin isigelisiwe, shisisa isampula ku-40°C okungenani amahora angu-24 ukuze uqinise ngokuphelele ingxube.Sebenzisa isaha likathayela ukuze usike isampula eliqinile libe yizicucu ezingu-6 × 9 cm, uzinamathisele kusilayidi engilazi bese uwagaya abe ugqinsi luka-30 μm.Izingcezu eziwumphumela zaskenwa kusetshenziswa isithwebuli se-flatbed, futhi sahlaziywa kusetshenziswa ukukhanya okuhlukanisiwe kwendiza, ukukhanya kwe-cross-polarized, ukukhanya kwesigameko esitshekile, kanye ne-fluorescence eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka ngeso lenyama kanye nokukhuliswa (× 50 kuya ku-× 200).Amagama kanye nencazelo yezigaba ezincane zilandela imihlahlandlela eshicilelwe abakwa-Stoops (60) kanye no-Courty et al.(61).Amaqhuqhuva e-carbonate akha inhlabathi aqoqwe ekujuleni okungu-> 80 cm asikwa abe uhafu ukuze uhhafu ukhuleliswe futhi wenze izingcezu ezincane (4.5 × 2.6 cm) kusetshenziswa isibonakhulu esijwayelekile se-stereo kanye nesibonakhulu se-petrographic kanye ne-cathodoluminescence (CL) Isibonakhulu socwaningo. .Ukulawulwa kwezinhlobo ze-carbonate kuqaphele kakhulu, ngoba ukwakheka kwe-carbonate eyenza inhlabathi kuhlobene nendawo ezinzile, kuyilapho ukwakheka kwe-carbonate yamanzi angaphansi komhlaba kuzimele ngaphandle kwendawo noma inhlabathi.
Amasampuli ambiwa endaweni eyisikiwe yamaqhuqhuva e-carbonate akha inhlabathi futhi ahlukaniswa ngohhafu ukuze kuhlaziywe okuhlukahlukene.I-FS isebenzise isibonisi esijwayelekile nesibonakhulu se-petrographic se-Geoarchaeology Working Group kanye nesibonakhulu se-CL se-Experimental Mineralogy Working Group ukuze ifunde izingcezu ezincane, zombili ezitholakala e-Tübingen, eJalimane.Amasampuli angaphansi kwe-radiocarbon dating ambiwa kusetshenziswa izinsimbi ezinembayo ukusuka endaweni eqokiwe elinganiselwa eminyakeni eyi-100 ubudala.Enye ingxenye yamaqhuqhuva ingu-3 mm ububanzi ukuze kugwenywe izindawo ezinekristalu ephuzile, ukufakwa kwamaminerali acebile, noma izinguquko ezinkulu kusayizi wamakristalu e-calcite.Iphrothokholi efanayo ayikwazi ukulandelwa kumasampula e-MEM-5038, MEM-5035 kanye ne-MEM-5055 A.Lawa masampuli akhethwa kumasampula enzinga exegayo futhi mancane kakhulu ukuthi angasikwa phakathi ukuze ahlukaniswe azacile.Kodwa-ke, izifundo zesigaba esincanyana zenziwa kumasampula e-micromorphological ahambelanayo we-sediments eseduze (kuhlanganise nama-nodule e-carbonate).
Sithumele amasampula okuthandana e-14C ku-Center for Applied Isotope Research (CAIS) eNyuvesi yase-Georgia, e-Athens, e-USA.Isampula ye-carbonate isabela nge-100% phosphoric acid emkhunjini wokusabela okhishiwe ukuze yakhe i-CO2.Ukuhlanzwa kwezinga lokushisa eliphansi kwamasampuli e-CO2 kusuka kweminye imikhiqizo yokusabela kanye nokuguqulwa kwe-catalytic ku-graphite.Isilinganiso segraphite 14C/13C sikalwe kusetshenziswa i-accelerator mass spectrometer engu-0.5-MeV.Qhathanisa isilinganiso sesampula nesilinganiso esikalwa ne-oxalic acid I standard (NBS SRM 4990).I-Carrara marble (IAEA C1) isetshenziswa njengengemuva, futhi i-travertine (IAEA C2) isetshenziswa njengezinga lesibili.Umphumela uvezwa njengephesenti lekhabhoni yesimanje, futhi usuku olucashuniwe olungalinganisiwe lunikezwa eminyakeni ye-radiocarbon (iminyaka ye-BP) ngaphambi kuka-1950, kusetshenziswa isigamu sempilo engu-14C yeminyaka engu-5568.Iphutha licashunwe njengo-1-σ futhi libonisa iphutha lezibalo nelokuhlola.Ngokusekelwe kunani elingu-δ13C elilinganiswa nge-isotope ratio mass spectrometry, C. Wissing of the Biogeology Laboratory e-Tubingen, Germany, ibike idethi yokuhlukaniswa kwe-isotopu, ngaphandle kwe-UGAMS-35944r elinganiswa ku-CAIS.Isampula 6887B yahlaziywa yaba yimpinda.Ukuze wenze lokhu, shayela isampula encane yesibili kusuka ku-nodule (UGAMS-35944r) endaweni yesampula ekhonjiswe endaweni yokusika.Ijika lokulinganiswa kwe-INTCAL20 (Ithebula S4) (62) elisetshenziswe ku-hemisphere eseningizimu lisetshenziswe ukulungisa ukuhlukaniswa komkhathi kwawo wonke amasampuli ku-14C kuya ku-2-σ.